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from Russian magazine “Military collection”, 1914, No. 2, pp. 213-224
Translated from Russian by Eugen Pinak
[Ordinary life in the army is rarely the subject of the big historical books. This article has a lot of interesting details and was originally published in English. Unfortunately I was unable to find the original text so I’ve translated it from Russian.
To get sums, mentioned in this article, into content: in 1914 both 1 rouble (=100 kopecks) and 1 yen (=100 sen) were worth roughly 1/2 US Dollar, or 50 cents. – Eugen Pinak]
***
In the “The Army Review”, magazine published by the British General Staff, published an interesting article characterizing the internal life and economy of Japanese army units; it applies to the infantry regiment, but equally applies to other branches of the military. The article, apparently, is not the result of observations of one person, but was compiled on the basis of reports from several British officers.
JAPAN.
In the Japanese army, perhaps more than in any other, attention is paid to the moral education of soldiers, that is, to their assimilation of those qualities that, even if they went into the reserve, they would retain if they were called up to fulfill the duties of a soldier to the fatherland In view of the short period of service of two years, the time devoted to training of any kind is considered insufficient to achieve this goal, although soldiers are continuously under the control or influence of superiors throughout the period of service. The Japanese internal service regulations emphasize, that “any training pursuing parade purposes is a secondary thing, and the perfections acquired in this regard quickly melt away under the influence of the hardships and tensions of wartime... The main goal of barracks life is the development of discipline and military spirit and in the performance of daily duties one should always keep in mind the purpose of the army and the conditions of war.” The internal life of the Japanese unit embodies the idea of preparation for war; life in the barracks is the threshold of camp life, it accustoms one to hardships, frugality and endurance, and its conditions, in relation to accommodation, uniforms and food, are distinguished by the Spartan simplicity. This principle applies not only to soldiers (officers and other ranks), but also applies to horses, which are also accustomed to wartime conditions: Japanese horses do not know blankets in the cold season, heated or dried grain, etc. luxuries.
Although unit commanders are given a significant amount of independence, nevertheless, the Japanese army is characterized by remarkable uniformity in terms of its internal economy; there are no privileged units, as this could give rise to envy and misunderstandings between bodies of the troops; compliance with this principle is strictly monitored by the authorities and military circles are permeated with it; this attitude is also facilitated by the frequent exchange of officers and non-commissioned officers in military units, who are often sent to other units for several days or even weeks to become familiar with their internal life.
In the sense of uniformity and convergence of the military branches, the nomenclature also deserves attention: the word “chutai” equally means a company, a squadron or a battery; “daitai” — both battalion and artillery division; the names of non-commissioned officer ranks and privates are the same in all branches of the military.
The captain, the commander of a company, squadron or battery, is largely freed from economic concerns by the regimental “committee” and the officers of the regimental headquarters, but he has significant power and responsibility: he alone is responsible for the training of recruits, has great powers to impose penalties and rewards, and has extensive control over the entire company, since there are no platoon commanders. He entrusts junior officers with responsibilities relating to the entire company: training recruits, training non-commissioned officers or senior privates, managing the uniform department, company premises, etc.
Only in the field is there division of company into platoons; previously, it existed in barracks and camps, but then it was abolished to achieve, again, great uniformity in the life and training of the company. In the barracks, however, there is a division of the company into squads under the leadership of non-commissioned officers, but purely in terms of economics; the number of squads in a company depends on the discretion of the company commander and in a company of 120 men there are usually 5 or 6 squads; people from each squad live and eat together.
The ranks of the other ranks in the company are as follows: sergeant major, who is responsible for monitoring the health, cleanliness and order in the company, making roster of daily details and maintaining a list of personnel; supply sergeant, who is keeping records of salaries, uniforms, equipment and food and entering the relevant information into the soldiers’ books; sergeants and corporals, squad leaders; “superior privates” (lance-corporals), usually about 1/2 of the old-timers of the 2nd year of service. Recruits arrive in early December; after 4 months they become privates of the “second class”, and the latter, after serving only 1 year, if recognized as fully prepared, receive the rank of privates of the “first class”.
Economic duties in the regiment (in terms of money, clothing, food, barracks and reporting) are performed by the staff at headquarters, subordinate to the regimental commander, under his responsibility, quartermaster ranks — 3-4 officers and non-commissioned officers; in addition, a “committee” is established in the regiment to monitor economic duties; it consists of both quartermaster officers and combat officers (3-4), from among those stationed at the regimental headquarters (there are 5 or 6 of them, from the rank of lieutenant colonel and below). The economic committee is divided into 4 subcommittees — money, clothing, food and barracks. Finally, a special weapons commission is formed in the regiment; it is in charge of the acceptance, repair, storage and distribution of weapons and technical equipment. All economic institutions in the regiment — workshops, bakeries, etc. are under the control of the economic committee and its corresponding subcommittee.
Money allowance. With the exception of part of the food and fodder and special equipment, delivered from the division, the preparation of everything necessary for the regiment lies with the responsibility of the regimental economic committee with the help of regimental quartermasters. For this purpose, the regiment receives money under 7 articles and acquires what it needs on the spot. These articles are as follows: 1) food and fodder, 2) uniforms, 3) heating, lighting, keeping people clean (soap), etc., 4) repair of barracks, 5) caring for horses (forging, etc.), 6) repair of weapons and equipment, and 7) conduct of exercises. In addition, there are sums of officers’ messes, non-commissioned officers’ associations and bands, but they are of a more private nature. Savings for various items are not handed over to the treasury, but are retained in the accounts and can henceforth be spent on emerging needs, but only under the appropriate article with the permission of the unit commander. Reporting is periodically monitored by the divisional quartermaster and officers seconded by the War Department. Money are given to officers and companies’ supply sergeants by the regimental quartermaster three times a month, for every 10 days (to companies’ supply sergeants in the form of an advance); a private receives 1 yen 53 sen per month (about 1.5 rubles). This is not considered much, even in Japan, where prices are low, but in the Japanese army it is generally believed that a soldier should not have money on hand and should be taught to live a simple and frugal life; thus determining the largest amount that a soldier can spend per day with a canteen; the post office does not issue cash letters to soldiers without a certificate, signed by the company commander; officers ask parents, accompanying recruits during enlistment, not to send them money, and the internal service regulations state that the company commander is obliged to develop in people a love of simplicity, of frugality, and to insist that they do not ask their parents to send money.
In Japan, it is generally believed that money is the root of all evils; trade and speculation are not respected, they are not engaged in by persons who value their dignity, and merchants are considered inferior to farmers and sailors. It is not customary for military personnel to even talk about money matters, and if this is necessary, they avoid mentioning coins and banknotes, but rather talk as if about units of length. Officers rarely have their own funds and therefore are paid a salary, but to emphasize that an officer does not serve for money, the same ranks in various branches of the military and institutions (headquarters, departments, adjutants, etc.) receive the same salary; the same applies to the other ranks. For the same reason, cash prizes are not given at sports competitions, and for a military man, a monetary award is generally considered humiliating.
Uniform, equipment and weapons. A certain amount per person is allocated to the unit commander for the procurement and repair of uniforms and equipment. With these funds, everything necessary is prepared by the regimental “committee”; until recently, everything was bought by the regiment from local merchants. However, now some items, such as cloth, canvas, boots, flasks, were prepared at state-owned factories and the cost of those items issued to the regiment in kind is deducted from the annual allowance. To further facilitate the regimental economy, in 1910 a decree was issued creating divisional economic committees, which were obliged to procure such items as shirts, socks, gaiters, etc. Weapons, ammunition and barracks equipment were procured by the military department, with the release of a small amount to the regiments for their upkeep.
The system for replacing (renewing) items is interesting. There are no deadlines for clothing and it is not branded, but every year during the inspection period, a portion of the supplies of each category determined by the regulations is recognized as having fallen into disrepair and is replaced with a new one (or an appropriate monetary allowance); the most worn-out items are returned in the same number to the treasury; for example, 1/20 of cartridge pouches is replaced annually. This does not apply to weapons; it is replaced as soon as it becomes unusable. In clothing, as in everything else, uniformity and simplicity are observed; the cut is the same in all troops; the difference is only in the color of the patches on the collar to indicate the arm or service of troops, the regiment number is on these patches and on the distinctions of rank; there are no special insignias for the regiments. Reports from British officers say that, despite the cold and snow, Japanese soldiers are not allowed to wear sweatshirts or mittens; at first they suffer from this, but then they quickly get used to it; the clothing of Japanese soldiers does not provide good protection from the cold, but it is considered unsoldierlike to be afraid of the cold; during the snow or rain, it is customary not to raise collars and hide hands in pockets — this is considered a sign of effeminacy.
Food. The food of the Japanese soldier is simple and easy to prepare; it, strictly speaking, consists of one dish — rice, sometimes seasoned with fish, pickles or prunes; the main drink is tea — without sugar and milk; the temperature of food, rice or tea is indifferent.
According to custom, there are no fixed hours for eating; in Japan, little time is generally devoted to food, all dishes are placed on the table at once, and it is not customary to talk while eating; whoever eats slowly invites ridicule; lunch lasts five minutes, which often causes poor digestion; such customs are very suitable for the army. The regimental committee is in charge of food; it makes monthly demands for rice and fodder, procured by the divisional committee through suppliers; the latter hand over rice and fodder weekly directly to the regiment; the regimental quartermaster draws up a report every Friday, which the regimental committee considers on Saturday and submits to the regimental commander; the latter presents it to the division headquarters, bypassing the brigade headquarters (the brigade commander has nothing to do with the units’ economy). Other products are prepared on site, under the care of the regimental committee; it also manages the preparation of food; however, in the infantry there is a food commission in each battalion; battalion is a provisioning unit in wartime. Fuel and food (except rice) are purchased by the committee for a sum of 7 sen 8 rin (about 8 kopecks) per person per day. The other ranks receive 6 “go” (1.8 pounds) of rice per day. It is allowed to replace rice with wheat in a certain proportion not exceeding 3/7; taking wheat into your diet protects against the development of beriberi disease, which is easily caused by an exclusive diet of rice; besides, wheat is cheaper than rice, and the regiment save about 240 rubles monthly on this; however, the tendencies of the regimental committee to save on food are prohibited by the regulations, and the mentioned savings go entirely to the regimental accounts to improve food for the soldiers people in night guard duty, to improve food for recruits at the beginning of their service, etc. Tableware is made from aluminum; most regiments used their own resources to replace old rice boilers with steam rice cookers, that required less fuel.
Premises. At the regimental headquarters there are the following premises: 1) a reception area with 25 beds, 2) near the gates of the barracks a room for civilian visitors and a shed for orderlies’ horses, 3) a room for officers daily meetings, 4) a room for the regiment commander, where the banner is kept, 5) office, 6) duty room with premises for those arrested.
In the barracks, in addition to quarters for people, there are rooms for non-commissioned officers and company offices, officer rooms and arms lockers. The officers’ rooms are occupied by the junior officer of the company and the duty officer; there are usually two non-commissioned officers’ rooms — non-commissioned officers live in one, and they practice in the other. However, if space permits, sergeant majors (over 6 years of service) and some squad leaders non-commissioned officers are allowed to have separate rooms. A wooden plaque indicating the name, rank and position of the other rank is nailed above his bed; the same plaque is on the chest and hanger for each soldier.
In the stables, above each stall there is a plaque indicating the horse’s name, category (officer’s, riding, artillery, baggage), color, age, height, place of origin and temperament.
The walls of the barracks are often decorated with paintings (sometimes painted by the other ranks themselves) of the exploits of the ranks of the regiment, such as a soldier cutting a wire fence under fire, saving a drowning horse, etc. In each room hangs a wooden board with a rescript from the Emperor about the duties of a soldier. In the front of each company room hangs a mirror in which the soldier looks when going to roll call. In the company room there hangs a board for designating duties: holes are made in the top of it, above which various duties are inscribed, and at the bottom of the board there are several rows of pegs with the names of the ranks of the company; when being assigned for a duty, a peg with the soldier’s name is removed from the lower rows and stuck into the upper hole of the corresponding duty; simple and unmistakable.
Each soldier, according to Japanese custom, takes a bath every day, and a very hot one, at least 103 degrees Fahrenheit (40 degrees Celsius); for this purpose there are large baths for 25 people, made of special wood that gives the water a pleasant aroma; bathing time — between 4 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon; during bathing, the water is not refreshed (only topped up if a lot has been splashed out), but is kept quite clean, since before bathin, people wash their body outside the bath and pour water on it on the floor of the bath. Fuel for the bath costs 0,35 kopecks per day per person.
Laundries are regimental; some have machines in which the laundry is washed in a soda solution for 20 minutes, then wrung out by hand and dried in a special steam dryer. Laundry is provided to companies on a daily basis; due to holidays — sometimes every 3 weeks; to wash clothes, 6 people from the company are detailed. Hair cutting is mutual self-service, as in wartime; there are four pairs of government scissors in the company.
Canteens. Regimental canteen (a kind of soldier’s shop) is not considered a source of income for the regiment and is tolerated only as a “lesser evil” that prevents soldiers from visiting private taverns and shops. The regimental commander appoints the largest amount that a soldier can spend per day (usually an average of 6 kopecks); for control, soldiers is paid not in money, but with checks issued from the company office; these checks are of different colors, in three denominations of 4, 2 and 1 kopeck.
Luxury items are not for sale; the unit commander determines the items allowed for sale, for example: 1) toiletries, writing utensils, fans; 2) sake, beer, biscuits, cake, pasta, meat, tobacco and cigarettes. Only items of the 2nd category can be sold with a small profit (1/25); The regiment’s total profit per month does not exceed 80 rubles. The shop is open from midday until evening roll call; on holidays — from the morning.
Category 2 items are sold only on holidays and on Wednesdays and Fridays, with the exception of biscuits; the latter are sold daily. Still, soldiers sometimes receive money from home and spend it in shops and taverns, but these cases are less common in the Japanese army than in others.
Hygiene. Every month a medical examination of people is carried out and everyone’s weight is measured; in the company premises there is a graphic table of the weight of soldiers, depicted with “curves”; if a soldier loses weight over a long period of time, he is subjected to a thorough examination. Smallpox vaccination is given upon admission; typhoid vaccination is not compulsory, but officers urge people to take it every year.
With regard to the calculation of service time and pay, illnesses are divided into three categories: 1) illnesses that the soldier could not avoid, received while serving; 2) same — but received outside of service, and 3) illnesses and injuries that he could have avoided (venereal disease, self-mutilation, injuries received during a private quarrel). On the march, the retarded are divided into three categories: 1) those who cannot walk or ride, and are transported on a cart; 2) infantrymen, who can march, but without weapons and equipment, or cavalrymen, who cannot ride, and 3) who can march with weapons and equipment, but cannot take place in the ranks. Those who are backward in each category are marked with patch of different colors. Patients with typhus are marked with a white cloth patch on the chest; those suffering from eyes diseases — red. According to the regulations, patients can stay in the regimental emergency room for no more than three days (before transfer to hospitals), but in practice they stay up to six days. Once a month, a military doctor reads a message on hygiene to each company.
Day routine. In summer, the daily distribution in the barracks is as follows:
Morning call up – 5 a.m.
Tea – 6 a.m.
Lunch – 12 noon
Bathing – 4-6 p.m.
Change of the guard – 5 p.m.
Dinner – 6 p.m.
Evening roll call – 9 p.m.
Light out – 9:30 pm.
In winter the routine is the same, but from 1/2 to 1 hour later. The duty officer wears a scarf over shoulder. The non-commissioned officer on duty in the company and the duty orderly (private 1st class) are assigned for the week and wear a red and white brassard on their sleeves. Officers usually arrive at the barracks at 7 o'clock in the morning and leave no earlier than 5-6 o'clock in the evening. Apart from the duty officer and junior officers of the latest graduating class, all officers live outside the barracks; all the officers have breakfast in the barracks, in the officers’ mess; immediately before or after breakfast, the officers gather in a special room available for this purpose in the presence of the regimental commander; at the same time, the regimental commander communicates special orders; brief communications or discussions on military topics or other matters often occur. This daily meeting of officers is called “kwaiho”; it is very characteristic and it saves a lot of correspondence, and the officers become acquainted with everything that happens in the regiment and concerning it.
In relation to preparation, the year is divided into periods; during the period December - March, recruits are trained; service trips for other ranks — orderlies, cooks, runners, etc. — are allowed only from the soldiers of the 2nd year of service (or 3rd in other branches of the military, except infantry); service trips last no more than 3 months (this does not apply to artisans). The best people are appointed as orderlies and, although they do not receive any special remuneration, such a service is considered honorable.
Leaves. There are four categories of leaves that can be authorized by the unit commander: 1) ordinary leave once a year for 21 days for officers and 14 days for non-commissioned officers; 2) leave after particularly difficult service or service trip — 30 days for officers and 14 for non-commissioned officers; 3) award leave for non-commissioned officers and privates for good behavior — 1 day per month (can be authorized by the company commander); 4) special leave for improvement of health or due to urgent private matters up to 28 days; leaves abroad for study are permitted by the War Department. Officers and other ranks are released from service on the day of the anniversary of the death of their father or mother.
In addition to Sundays, there are 16 national and 5 military holidays per year. Military holidays — the anniversary of the issue of the banner to the regiment, a day in memory of the Battle of Mukden and three days of commemoration of the ranks who fell on the battlefield. National holidays also in most cases have historical significance.
Officers rarely take advantage of the full three weeks of leave. The unit commander usually takes annual leave of no more than 10 days and the officers follow his example. The new internal service regulations limits the leaves of other ranks: they are not dismissed on weekdays and in small numbers on Sundays; the weekday leave of soldiers who were on duty on Sunday has also been cancelled. At a meeting of division chiefs, before the release of the regulations, the Deputy Minister of War motivated these restrictions as follows: “in the middle and lower classes of the population, few rest on Sunday; workers are given only 2 days of rest per month, servants — 3-4 days a year, and the rural population hardly has any rest days at all.”
Penalties. The penalties imposed on officers are as follows: arrest under guard; prohibition to leave the barracks with a reduction in pay by half; house arrest; prohibition of leave from duty; reduction of 1/5 of pay (all these penalties do not exceed 30 days); reprimands; deprivation of the right to wear a uniform, temporarily (for reserve officers).
Non-commissioned officers are subject to: demotion to privates of the 1st class (non-commissioned officers are never demoted to a lower rank, if they are demoted, then straight to the privates); strict arrest in a punishment cell without a bed for 48 hours out of 72, with deprivation of allowance and with a ration of only rice, hot water and salt; ordinary arrest in a punishment cell with reduction of 1/2 of pay (arrests are imposed for no more than 30 days); prohibition of leave from barracks from 1 to 60 days; reprimands.
Penalties imposed on superior privates and privates: demotion to private of the 1st or 2nd class; arrest — as for non-commissioned officers; duties out of order. Prohibition of leave from 1 to 60 days, extra work duties.
There are two levels of military courts; divisional and highest in Tokyo. Divisional courts consist of 5 officers seconded for 6 months; the eldest presides. The investigation is carried out by a special auditor; the latter, as well as the prosecutor and court clerks, are civilian lawyers, but the auditor and the prosecutor undergo a special military legal course.
The company commander’s authority to impose penalties is significant; he can reprimand officers; non-commissioned officers could be placed under arrest for 10 days or leave cancelled for 20 days; for privates the highest measure is double. The regulations instructs the company commander to visit arrested men of his company.
Discipline in the Japanese army is exemplary. During the whole year, British officer, who served in a Japanese company, reports only 6 penalties imposed, from 1 to 9 days of arrest, for the following offenses: failure to salute an officer, a soldier got drunk and made a mess, 2 cases of failure to comply with orders, non-compliance with military regulations. It should be noted that the Japanese soldier, who responds well to praise and encouragement, reacts strongly in the opposite direction to penalties, especially those imposed publicly; he either becomes stubborn or falls into dark repentance, sometimes leading to suicide. Therefore, officers are very careful when imposing penalties; in cases of minor offenses, when the soldier himself recognizes his guilt, they do not make a reprimand.
Correspondence, orders, reporting. Correspondence is concentrated mainly in the regimental office and in the hands of the regimental adjutant; battalion adjutants and company commanders rarely visit their offices. Orders to battalions and companies are usually given verbally.
Information in orders for the military department is facilitated by the grouping of these orders and the system of their storage: they are compiled in a general volume called “Orders for the Army.” The volume is divided into 17 sections: the “ceremonial” part, uniforms, training of troops, etc. (the manuals and regulations, of course, are published separately); the book is bound in such a way that it allows for changes and additions: it has two hard covers; two rubber threads with needles at the ends pass through the sheets and covers for ease of threading; every month the book is embroidered and sheets of new orders are inserted into the corresponding department, after which all the sheets are again stitched with needles and threads, and the needles are fixed on the outside of the cover.
There are two categories of documents that are not subject to disclosure: “secret”, relating to all issues of wartime organization, and “confidential” on some peacetime issues. Finally, personnel qualification reports, compiled for both officers and non-commissioned officers, and other personal information not falling into the designated categories, are considered not a subject to disclosure.
The regimental adjutant is required to collect material for the history of the regiment. As for the soldiers’ books, they are distinguished by an abundance of instructions from the moral sphere; out of 25 pages, 12 contain the Emperor’s Rescript on the duties of a soldier and the rules of soldier etiquette. The “List of Army Officers” is published once a year and consists of 2 parts: a list of active service officers and reserve officers.
According to custom, in the first year of a soldier’s service, the company commander writes to his parents twice about his son’s behavior and successes, and even more often if the soldier is not performing well; then — once a year, unless something special happens to the soldier.
Saluting. The rules for saluting are the same as in other armies; when saluting, the body leans forward slightly. The sentry, when a non-commissioned officer passes, stands at attention and the non-commissioned officer responds by saluting. The rank and file salute the sentries, and the latter respond by standing to attention. In the barracks, the headdress is removed by both other ranks and officers.
It is not customary to overtake a senior on the street; if this is required “for the duty”, then the reason should be stated. Saluting by the teams is common; non-combatant officers are not given salutes by teams. Units of troops go into parade in the following cases: during the oath of new recruits, when newly promoted officers join the unit, when old-timers are dismissed, when celebrating in the memory of military ranks fallen in battle (2 times a year), in New Year (honor is given to the image of the Emperor and the banner), on the anniversary of the birth of the Emperor, on the anniversary of the issue of the banner to the regiment; in some regiments — on the day rifles are issued to recruits.
When burying a captain or a higher rank, the entire local garrison, subordinated to him, salutes, and mourning is worn on the banners, drums, bugles and sword hilts, as well as a bandage on the left sleeve. When a regiment commander is buried, a banner is carried out, and the mourning is not removed until a new commander is appointed, and officers wear mourning on their sword hilts for a month; the latter also occurs in a battalion or company in the event of the death of its commander. If a soldier dies on leave, a funeral money are sent to the parents.
There is one banner in the regiment; battalions have white flags with 1, 2 or 3 black stripes, but this is only a distinctive sign. The banner (or standard in cavalry) is held in great esteem; the poles may be replaced, but the banner itself is not renewed; in some regiments the banners are very dilapidated (there was, however, a case of replacing banners after the war, when on the “Hitachi maru” transport, before its surrender to the Russians, by the order of Colonel Suchi, the banners were burned).
To carry the banner, an officer is appointed as the unit commander — usually the eldest of the subalterns. In barracks and apartments, the banner is kept in the commander’s room under the guard of a sentry (the best soldiers take turns from each company). The banner is carried out during war, during maneuvers and parades. On a campaign, the banner is carried in a case; at regimental exercises, the banner is replaced by a red flag of the same size, but this flag is not receives any honors. During a campaign, the banner is accompanied by a guard of 5 soldiers, especially skillful in handling weapons (mainly a bayonet) and of a representative appearance. The cover from the banner is removed during the campaign, when the reserve takes its place in the battle order or when it is called into battle.
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